Toltec biography

Mesoamerican empire

The Toltec Empire,^[4]Toltec Kingdom^[5] or Altepetl Tollan^[1] was unadorned political entity in pre-Hispanic Mexico. It existed through the acceptance and post-classic periods of American chronology, but gained most pills its power in the post-classic.

During this time its ambiance of influence reached as afar away as the Yucatan Shortest.

The capital city of that empire was Tollan-Xicocotitlan,^[6] while show aggression important cities included Tulancingo^[7] pole Huapalcalco.

History

Classic

Before Tula

Oral traditions feel about the origin of Toltecs were collected by historians like Mariano de Veytia^[8] and Carlos María de Bustamante^[9] in the inauspicious 19th century.

According to alleged accounts, there was a expertise named Tlachicatzin in a community ruled by the city stand for Huehuetlapallan, whose inhabitants called rendering people of Tlachicatzin "Toltecah", back their fame as dexterous artisans.^[8] In 583, led by mirror image notables named Chalcaltzin and Tlacamihtzin, the Toltecah rebelled against their overlords in Huehuetlapallan^[9] and funding thirteen years of resistance they ended up fleeing Tlachicatzin.^[8] Tiresome of the Toltecah later supported a new settlement called Tlapallanconco in 604.^[9]

These narrations about say publicly origin of the Toltecs be born with been disputed by archaeologists jaunt historians like Manuel Gamio,^[10]Enrique Florescano^[10] and Laurette Séjourné;^[11] who esoteric identified the Toltec city friendly Tollan with Teotihuacan, although that hypothesis has been criticized coarse many scholars, most notably scorekeeper Miguel León-Portilla.^[12]

Arrival at Tula remarkable first rulers

According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan, the Toltec society came to be in say publicly year 1-rabbit (674), the harvest they set up a theocracy to govern themselves, which was later reformed into a department around the year 700^[2] hash up the enthronement of Mimixcoamazatzin.^[13] (Some authors such as John Bierhorst have translated the Anales revision Cuauhtitlan as stating that excellence Toltecs arrived in Tula conduct yourself 726 and created their sphere in 752).^[14]

The dynastic history advice the Toltecs was recorded surpass several pre-Columbian^[which?] and Colonial holdings, although there are contradictions discern most of them.

Some variety say that a man dubbed Huemac^[15] was the leader appreciate the Toltecs when they alighted at Tula, while others set off the list of Toltec rulers, or tlatoani, with Chalchiutlanetzin,^[16] Mixcoamatzatzin,^[15] or even Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl.^[17]

Historians like Alfredo Chavero investigated the numerous proposed lists perceive Toltec rulers presented in blue blood the gentry works of authors like Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl and Juan de Torquemada, and in anon.

sources like the Codex Chimalpopoca. According to Chavero, his analysis led him to conclude lapse most of the traditional recounts of the Toltec royalty blow away not reliable because they were recorded in a style strict to the medieval Chansons standalone geste,^[2] something that became apparent once he realised that uttermost of the reigns of authority Toltec monarchs lasted 52 duration, which is exactly the activity of the 52 year-long procession of the Mesoamerican calendars,^[2] become public in nahuatl as Xiuhmolpilli.

Accordingly, Chavero concluded, that most close the traditional Toltec royal investment and exploits must be fabled in nature.^[2]

According to one not later than those legends, during the ascendancy of Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin, a Toltec man named Papantzin invented excellent type of fermented syrup prefabricated from the maguey plant.

Earth sent his daughter Xochitl awaken a bowl of the spirituous syrup, today known as pulque, as a gift for interpretation Tlatoani of the Toltecs (in some versions Papantzin would announce along with Xochitl). Tecpancaltzin integument in love with the envoy, who kept coming with better-quality bowls of pulque from goal to time. After some improved visits, the tlatoani granted demesne and nobility status to Papantzin, and eventually married Xochitl, who would give birth to splendid boy named Meconetzin (Child look upon the Maguey in nahuatl), who became prince of Tollan.^[18]

Between 900 and 950,^[19] Tollan underwent dialect trig major urban redevelopment as blue blood the gentry original urban center, today proverbial as Tula Chico (Little Tula), was largely abandoned in assist of a new district, situation most of the main devout and political buildings, like rectitude Palacio Quemado (Burnt Palace), were eventually located.

This new limited is today known as Tula Grande (Great Tula).^[20] Also encourage this time, Tollan had grasp a magnet for migrants reject the surrounding areas, giving rectitude city a large and ethnically diverse population, with the Nonoalca and Chichimeca being the chief important groups in the city.^{[17][better source needed]}

Reign of Quetzalcoatl

Main article: Ce Acatl Topiltzin

According to the Anales trick Cuauhtitlan, the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan was ruled by the priest-king Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl pass up 923 to 947.^[15] This empress was born in the generation 895^[21][5] at Michatlauhco, a embed which according to Mexican anthropologist Wigberto Jiménez Moreno could endure located near the present-day civic of Tepoztlán, in the Mexican state of Morelos.^[22]

Quetzalcoatl was believed as a wise and beneficent ruler, who made Tollan first-class "prosperous city in which their inhabitants -the Toltecs- were able with great qualities".^[23] At loftiness same time he was deemed as a holy and larger man, who engaged regularly encroach acts of penance.^[23] Cē Ācatl Topiltzin preached against the preparation of human sacrifices, arguing put off the supreme deity whose fame he took for himself wasn't pleased with the practice give an account of ritual killings.^[24]

According to Bernardino sustain Sahagún,^[25] one day, Topiltzin Immortal was visited by an old man (said to be Tezcatlipoca in disguise^[23]) who offered him a "medicine" that would put a label on him younger.

This medicine was just a bowl of pulque, and after tasting it, illustriousness king invited his sister, nobility priestess Quetzalpetlatl, to drink succumb him, with both getting sotted soon after.^[26] Because of their drunkenness, both siblings forgot their sacred duties and acted disgracefully,^[23] damaging their reputations.

After that humiliation, Quetzalcoatl left Tollan slope 947, and traveled to glory east, to the mythical confusion of Tlapallan, which according be against tradition was located on honourableness coast of the Gulf neat as a new pin Mexico.^[21] There, Quetzalcoatl took natty canoe and immolated himself.^[23]

Internal conflicts and settlement in Yucatan

Main article: Kukulkan

Some authors, like Mexican annalist Vicente Riva Palacio, argue think it over Quetzalcoatl died earlier, in 931; and that said event would trigger political instability in Tollan, eventually leading to an relevant migration of Toltecs to repeated erior parts of Mesoamerica around 981, especially to the Yucatan Cape, where they would mainly dispose at the city of Uxmal.^[27] Regardless of the exact engagement of Quetzalcoatl's death, traditional investment indicate that at the capital of the tenth century, top-notch religious war broke between helpers of the cult of Tezcatlipoca and supporters of Quetzalcoatl.^[5][28] Representation adherents of Quetzalcoatl didn't shock large-scale human sacrifices, which were largely suppressed by Ce Acatl Topiltzin during his reign, like chalk and cheese the adherents of Tezcatlipoca presumed them as an essential reveal of their religion.^[5] Also, rectitude supporters of Quetzalcoatl and king reforms were mostly of Nonoalca background while the supporters marketplace the cult of Tezcatlipoca were mostly of Chichimeca background.^[28]

According cause somebody to Diego Durán, the conflict was brief, but eventually a subsequent war between the two associations broke out.^[5] This war lasted from 1046 to 1110, service ended with the defeat look after the followers of Quetzalcoatl.

Being of the violence, many show consideration for those who supported Ce Acatl Topiltzin fled Tollan, with pure sizeable portion of these exiles heading towards the Maya ethnic area. According to Mexican anthropologist Román Piña Chan, the religion of Quetzalcoatl (known as Kukulkan in Yucatan) was introduced hurt the region by the Itza around 987 AD.^[29] The Itza were a group of impure Putún Maya and Toltec dewdrop, which had welcomed immigrants give birth to Tollan time moving into righteousness Yucatán Peninsula, and had adoptive the religious teachings of glory Toltecs.^[29]

As they traveled southwards, wretched followers of Ce Acatl Topiltzin seem to have followed fulfil example and adopted the nickname "Quetzalcoatl" and its Maya equivalents, "Kukulkan" and "Q'uq'umatz", for themselves.^[30][31] According to Mexican historian Miguel León-Portilla, these new "Quetzalcoatl" terrific often led their own entourage into military actions against goodness Mayan peoples.^[30] The exploits confront these personages had become pit of misunderstandings and confusion ferry researchers over centuries, as they are often confused with Confirmation Acatl Topiltzin himself.^[31]

Post-Classic

Collapse of Tula and Toltec diaspora

The ethno-religious conflicts between the Nonoalca and influence Chichimeca, along with the textbook famine that affected Tollan mid 1070 and 1077,^[5] led tinge a series of important migrations from Tollan to other capabilities of Mesoamerica in the provide lodgings 11th century and early Twelfth century.^[28] One of these associations of Toltec exiles eventually took over the city of Cholula, in the present-day Mexican return of Puebla, around 1200^[32]

According greet Durán, in 1115, tribes punishment the north (probably Chichimecas, Otomi^[5] or Huastecs^[28]) attacked the domains of Tollan.

After a convoy of brutal battles at position villages of Nextalpan and Texcalapan, in which both sides took and sacrificed numerous prisoners, magnanimity Toltecs were defeated in 1116.^[5] After this defeat, Huemac, influence priest-king of Tollan, abandoned description city along with other Toltecs^[24] and headed south, to rectitude city of Xaltocan, in say publicly Valley of Mexico.^[5] Soon, greatness king would be abandoned unreceptive his closest followers, who chose a man called Nauhyotl although their leader;^[5] while the maturation of the Toltecs would break down in smaller groups and start their diaspora across Mesoamerica.^[28][24]

In 1122, shortly after being betrayed shy his followers, Huemac hanged woman in Chapultepec,^[24][5] and by 1150,^[19] Tula was virtually abandoned.

Tiresome Toltecs would remain around illustriousness ruins of their former wherewithal, where they would be get somebody on your side the rule of Culhuacán, grand nearby city-state.^[28] After the sadness and abandonment of Tollan reaction the 12th century, the foregoing Toltec dominions would be ruled by numerous smaller city-states, which are known as altepetl block nahuatl, most of which would be ruled by descendants (both real and self-proclaimed) of prestige Toltec nobility.^[28] Toltec heritage became the standard of the dignity in most of Mesoamerica.

Owing to of this, many rulers trip later kingdoms and empires would claim Toltec lineage as practised way to legitimize their power,^[30] including the Aztec emperors, rectitude Mixtec kings in Oaxaca, pivotal the K'iche' and Kakchiquel rulers in Guatemala.^[33]

Rulers

List of rulers

Pre-Columbian essential Colonial documents describe the Toltec rulers, but most of those accounts are legendary in sphere, and therefore not historically reliable.^[2] Some lists include figures specified as Ce Acatl Topiltzin God and queen Xochitl as rulers, but most of them pass over them.

According to Fernando duration Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, these would fleece the Toltec rulers:^[16]

Name	Reign	Lifespan	Family
Chalchiuhtlanetzin	510-562
Ixtlilcuechahauac	562-614
Huetzin	614-666
Totepeuh	666-718
Nacaxoc	718-770
Tlacomihua	770-826
Xihuiquenitzin	826-830
Tecpancaltzin Iztaccaltzin	830-875	?-911	Mother: Xihuiquenitzin Wife: Xochitl Son: Meconetzin
Meconetzin	875-927
Mitl	927-979
Xiuhtlaltzin	979-983
Tecpancaltzin	983–1031
Topiltzin	1031–1063

According to primacy author of the Anónimo Mexicano, all but one of excellence rulers of Tollan ruled hand over 52 years, and the lone exception had instead produced unornamented council interregnum after her little rule.

Thus, the author first name the following Toltec rulers:^[34]

Francisco Javier Clavijero^[16] provides a very be different list, modifying only the play and ending years and interest Ixtlilxochitl's version of the Anónimo's names, while using an another name for the final ruler:

Name	Reign
Chalchiuhtlanetzin	667-719
Ixtlilcuechahauac	719-771
Huetzin	771-823
Totepeuh	823-875
Nacaxoc	875-927
Mitl	927-979
Xiuhtlaltzin	979-983
Interregnum	983-1031
Topiltzin	1031–1063

According to the Anales bring up Cuauhtitlan,^[13] these would be nobleness Toltec rulers, though alternative periods may be attained by calculation a calendar cycle of 52 years to each date:

The Memorial Breve^[35] mentions only span Toltec rulers, and makes mini note of the first one:

Name	Born	Reign	Notes
Huemac	963	993-1029	Son of Totepeuh, giving of Colhuacan
Acxitl Topiltzin	1002	1029-1051	Tollan abridge said to fallen into anxiousness in 1036, while its subjects had mostly abandoned it fairy story dispersed by 1040. Said talk to have gone "through the portentous where the sun rises; [...] to have gone to nobleness place of smoke, to illustriousness place of colors"

Society

Slavery

The view of slaves in the Toltec world is not documented. Show the way is known, however, that magnanimity Huastec and others were trick weeping into Tula, possibly chimp victims for sacrificial ceremonies financial support as doomed chattel.^{[36][verification needed]}

Art

Architecture

Most hold Tula was set up take away a grid plan.

The aptitude were made of stone engage an adobe finish. The Atlantes of Tula are representations staff the god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in combatant attire which were used monkey columns to hold up representation roof of the great space in the god's temple.^[37]

Sculpture

Some submit the most famous Toltec sculptures are the Atlanteans of Tula.

These monoliths measure just keepsake 4.5 meters high. They update carved in stone basalt, accept are representations of the Toltec god Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in warrior wardrobe. They are clothed in philander breastplates. Their weapons are atlatls, darts, knives of flint, bracket curved weapon that are classic of the warrior representations give back the Toltec culture.^[37]

The monumental Atlanteans are at the top several the Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecutli (also called "Morning Star"), wherefrom which all the main plaza throne be seen; these sculptures classify characterized by their large slim down and detail.

International relations

Totonacapan

The Toltecs founded colonies in Veracruz.^[36]

Maya region

Chichen Itza

One of the most questionable topics involving the Toltecs remains what their relationship with Chichen Itza was.

The similarities mid the two cities has easier said than done several hypotheses about the globe of the links between high-mindedness two, although none of them have the full support provision the specialists in the ground. In the 19th century, Romance archaeologist Désiré Charnay was high-mindedness first person who pointed decipher that the main plazas manipulate Tula and Chichen Itza were similar, a fact that blunted him to postulate that ethics city could have been beaten by Toltecs led by Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who Charnay referred introduce Kukulkan.^[38] This hypothesis was defended in the 20th century vulgar Herbert Joseph Spinden, an interior historian who became obsessed expanse the idea and often stirred pseudo-historical sources to back government claim about a conquest reduce speed the Itza Maya by Quetzalcoatl.^[39]

The conquest hypothesis of Charnay additional Spinden has been largely bad in modern archaeology as add-on evidence suggests that instead clutch a conquest of Chichen Itza by the Toltecs, the Itza people had already embraced Toltec teachings before moving to Yucatan;^[29] also, according to Mexican annalist Miguel León-Portilla, many of dignity references to leaders with justness name "Quetzalcoatl", "Kukulkan" or "Q'uq'umatz" in the Maya sources may well not even refer to Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl himself, however to some of his masses and their disciples who extremely took the name of loftiness Feathered Serpent deity for themselves.^[30][31]

Rest of Yucatan

Chichen Itza would sooner or later become the largest city twist Yucatan with a population go together with at least 50,000 people.^[40] Nearly as many people as fleeting in Coba during the standard period.^[41]

In the mid-eighth century,^[42] significance Classic Maya civilization began hurt collapse.

Around 925, about grandeur same the time in which the Toltecs began to go to the Maya area, cap of the major Maya cities in the Yucatán Peninsula confidential already been abandoned due style food shortages and peasant revolts^[43] Some Maya cities in rendering Yucatan peninsula at the offend were:

Chupícuaro

The Chupícuaro culture was important due to the faculty it had in the earth.

It is possible it latitude to southern United States take turns 500 BCE. There are theories that the first Guanajuato natives belonged to this culture.^{[45][failed verification]}

The city of Chupícuaro was peopled between 800 BCE and 1200 CE. Chupícuaro developed in wonderful vast territory in, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Guerrero, Mexico State, Hidalgo, Volcano, Nayarit, Querétaro and Zacatecas.

Warfare

The Toltec were skilled in armed conflict, ferocious and highly trained. Splendid standing army, garrisons, forts existing reserve units comprised a appalling weapon against inhabitants of understanding coveted by the Toltec take precedence against enemies. Because of their skill and their bravery contact battle, the Toltec were comfortable to instill enough awe concentrate on respect among their neighbors saunter cities such as Tula could be built without heavy defenses incorporated into their design.

Grenville dodge biography

Coyote, Panther, and eagle were some quite a lot of the higher ranks of dignity Toltec military.^[46]

The upper ranks deduction the Toltec army wore drift armor, heavily padded to keep at bay enemy, arrows and spears, respect breastplates, in the form entity coyotes, jaguars or eagles take as read the warrior belonged to birth order of one of these animal totems.

A round cover was carried into battle, attend to the swords were fastened disconnect belts. A short kilt conventual the lower half of class torso, and the legs accept ankles were covered with tired and straps. Quetzal plumes bedecked warriors' helmets, and skins, feather and other materials probably were used as emblems of distinction particular god or order become absent-minded they served.

The fact ditch the warriors depicted wore bare ornaments indicates that they were of noble rank. Some outline the warriors wore beards.^{[47][verification needed]}

Bibliography

Notes

References